Education Blog: Essays and reflections on literacy, rhetoric, and critical inquiry

Culturally Responsive Teaching

By Darren Carter, M.Ed. | English & Rhetoric Specialist
Culturally Responsive Teaching goes far beyond adding a few diverse books to the reading list or celebrating holidays from different cultures. I see it as a commitment to understanding that each student’s language, identity, background knowledge, and lived experiences profoundly shape how they connect with literature, writing, and discussion. Having taught in Taiwan, Vietnam, and Indonesia, I’ve seen firsthand that culturally responsive teaching isn’t optional in international schools—it’s essential if we want learning to be meaningful. In my current classes, students come from a wide range of linguistic and cultural backgrounds. They arrive with different levels of English proficiency, unique literacy experiences, varying degrees of confidence, and their own ways of communicating.

One of the most powerful ideas I’ve worked with is “funds of knowledge.” Instead of seeing cultural or linguistic differences as problems, this approach encourages us to recognize the rich experiences, skills, and knowledge students bring from their homes and communities (Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2023). I see this every day in my classroom. Some students who struggle with academic English are incredibly strong oral storytellers or persuasive speakers. Others come from systems that focused heavily on memorization, so they feel nervous participating in open discussions or debates. When students see themselves reflected in the texts and topics we study, they engage much more deeply. I’ve noticed this clearly in writing lessons. When I let students set their narrative stories in Jakarta, Taipei, or their hometowns instead of forcing a generic Western setting, the writing becomes noticeably more authentic and energetic. The same happens in persuasive writing and debates when we connect topics to issues that matter in their own lives and cultures. Gloria Ladson-Billings’ framework of Culturally Relevant Teaching, academic success, cultural competence, and critical consciousness has been especially helpful (Ladson-Billings, 1995). In diverse classrooms like mine, it reminds me that language learning is closely tied to identity. Differentiation isn’t just making things easier. It is about understanding how culture and previous schooling shape the process by which students learn, then scaffolding accordingly while keeping expectations high.

For me personally, because of my pastoral counseling background, I am aware of how important psychological safety is. Students who feel their experiences are valued are far more willing to take risks, speak up, and think critically than those who worry about being ignored or even criticized. The classroom isn’t insular, but it should provide a buffer from criticism, even from peers outside of class. Culturally sustaining pedagogy takes this even further. It’s not enough to just acknowledge differences; we should actively support and sustain students’ languages, cultures, and identities. This feels especially important in international schools, where many students are balancing multiple cultural worlds at once. Routines, organization, and academic supports matter, but we should emphasize that every classroom procedure sends a message about whose voices are valued. I do a lot in terms of relationship building already, but we should build in more intentional relationship-building, more student choice and voice, all while maintaining high standards. At the end of the day, culturally responsive teaching is about making sure every student, not just those already confident with academic English, feels capable of participating confidently, thinking critically, and succeeding academically.

References
Education Week. (2021). What is culturally responsive teaching?
https://www.edweek.org/leadership/what-is-culturally-responsive-teaching/2021/05
Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465–491.
https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312032003465
Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. (2023). Funds of knowledge toolkit.
https://ospi.k12.wa.us/sites/default/files/2023-10/funds_of_knowledge_toolkit.pdf

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Language, Power, and Society: How Words Shape the World

By Darren Carter, M.Ed. | English & Rhetoric Specialist

Introduction

Fundamentally, language is a tool for communication; however, it is also the system through which individuals think, interact, and understand society. In 2021, I conducted a five-month action research project on language acquisition (LA), and theories of LA support the view that language develops through social interaction rather than in isolation. My project consisted of two groups of EAL students in Grades 6 and 7, totaling around 70 students.

The experimental group had a median Lexile level below 400 (Grade 1), with many students below measurable levels. The control group was higher, but still low, with an average of 605 (approximately Grade 3). The project is highly relevant to the idea of social interaction, as the experimental group used Vygotskian scaffolding, with significant use of peer modeling and application of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle. The control group received normal classroom instruction, with translation into L1 as needed.

Lexile testing was repeated on a monthly basis throughout the project, with categorical performance monitored by instructional assistants (feedback collected through qualitative forms) across all subjects. My findings were that while improvement in both groups at the Lexile level was comparable, the experimental group showed more categorical improvement in areas such as inquiry and interaction across other subjects. This suggested that the increased social interaction in my classroom was having a greater impact than direct language instruction, and it was the kind of impact that could significantly improve learning over time. The social aspect of learning isn’t marginally impactful—it is a powerful tool that can dramatically improve learning.

Language Acquisition and Languaging 

As we have seen, language development is both social and contextual. According to sociocultural theory, learners acquire language through interaction with more knowledgeable individuals (Vygotsky’s “more knowledgeable others”), gradually internalizing structures through scaffolding (Sarikas, 2020). This aligns with the idea of “languaging,” in which language is an active, meaning-making process rather than through adherence to a fixed system of rules.

In this paradigm, both L1 and L2 acquisition rely on meaningful communication. Grammar is not something memorized in isolation; rather, learners develop fluency through dialogue, collaboration, and use of language in daily life. This concept is supported by distributed language theory. This theory argues that language emerges through interaction, use, and shared understanding rather than purely by a learner’s internal cognition (Cowley, 2019). Therefore, language, as seen in my research, is dynamic and shaped continuously through socialization.

Language Conventions, Dialect, and Grammar Systems

Language is also shaped by conventions, dialect, and grammar systems, which vary depending on context and audience. Standard academic English, such as that taught in IGCSE 0500, prioritizes clarity, structure, and formal grammar, while spoken language and social media often rely on informal conventions, abbreviations, and dialectal variation.

Dialect plays a significant role in identity and communication, as speakers may shift between formal and informal language depending on context—a process known as code-switching. In a recent activity, I had my students use hybrid English and Indonesian for dialogue in a written narrative to create an authentic dialectal voice for a story set in an Indonesian context. This demonstrates that grammar is not a fixed system but a flexible tool shaped by purpose and audience. In digital spaces especially, nonstandard grammar and dialect are not signs of deficiency but reflections of evolving linguistic norms and cultural identity.

Language, Power, and Society

Language is a fundamental necessity in any society, and it would therefore be tied to power and social structures. According to van Dijk (2009), discourse is shaped by “context models,” meaning that language is largely dependent on social roles, knowledge, and relationships. It follows, therefore, that language cannot be neutral; rather, it reflects underlying ideologies and inequalities. Vernacular is shaped by these forces, among others.

If we analyze discourse—especially in today’s highly polarized climate—we can see that language can reinforce or challenge power structures. Rhetorical devices such as metaphor and framing, as well as lexical choices, can influence how audiences perceive information (Mandanari, 2018). This ties in directly with the following rhetorical situations.

Rhetorical Situation 1 – Journalism

In journalism, language plays a significant role in shaping public perception. Specific word choices, structure, tone, and framing guide interpretation. There is no such thing as completely “unbiased journalism,” any more than historical accounts are entirely objective. While journalism often claims objectivity, analysis of discourse suggests that reporting reflects individual perspective and context (van Dijk, 2009).

A news story reported simultaneously on MSNBC, CNN, Fox News, and Newsmax may appear as completely different events across all four platforms based on its presentation.

Rhetorical Situation 2 – Social Media

Social media, beyond simply sharing photos and family news, disrupts how truth is constructed and shared. It has become a rapidly evolving rhetorical space where language is informal, multimodal, and identity-driven.

A friend posts a piece of news that is untrue, and it is picked up and reposted by others. Someone close to the original poster may then repost it. Family members and friends may believe it because they trust the source, even though the original information was inaccurate.

In my role as a pastor, I often warned my congregants against reposting content without fact-checking, stating, “Repeating a lie as truth is lying, no matter the source.” Unfortunately, this happens frequently.

The speed of dissemination, combined with nonstandard grammar, dialect, and visual elements such as emojis, contributes to the identity of the poster. Social media users adopt specific styles of communication that express personality and engage audiences, and these styles can rapidly influence opinion. As van Dijk (2009) suggests, discourse is shaped by context, and social media provides a new context in which language evolves quickly and reflects contemporary cultural dynamics.

Conclusion

As stated in the beginning, language is more than a tool for communication. It is a powerful social tool that helps shape the way people think, individual identity, and society as a whole. Theories of language acquisition show that language develops through social interaction, while discourse theory demonstrates that language reflects and reinforces power structures.

Journalism and social media both use rhetorical devices to shape how information is presented and understood, revealing how profound the impact of language can be on society. When we understand language as a dynamic, socially driven system, we begin to see how it allows individuals to become more critical communicators and more discerning consumers of information.

References

Cowley, S. J. (2019). Languaging evolved: A distributed perspective. Chinese Semiotic Studies, 15(3), 349–364. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/css-2019-0026/html

Mandanari, V. (2018). The use of language in political rhetoric: Linguistic manipulation. Umsida Press. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/117981

Sarikas, C. (2020, January 4). Vygotsky scaffolding: What it is and how to use it. PrepScholar. https://blog.prepscholar.com/vygotsky-scaffolding-zone-of-proximal-development

van Dijk, T. A. (2009). Society and discourse: How social contexts influence text and talk. Cambridge University Press. https://discourses.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Teun-A.-van-Dijk-2009-Society-And-Discourse.-How-Social-Contexts-Influence-Text-And-Talk.pdf

Stenger, M. (2014). 5 research-based tips for providing students with meaningful feedback. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/blog/tips-providing-students-meaningful-feedback-marianne-stenger

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By Darren Carter, M.Ed. | English & Rhetoric Specialist

In recent years, artificial intelligence has entered classrooms amid understandable concerns about academic integrity and over-reliance. These concerns are valid. Yet they often overshadow a more important truth: when embedded in a thoughtful pedagogical framework, AI can meaningfully enhance both teaching efficiency and student learning outcomes.

My approach does not treat AI as a shortcut for students. Instead, it is integrated into a structured workflow grounded in Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Understanding by Design (UbD). In this model, AI does not replace thinking — it supports it.

A Structured Workflow, Not an Open Tool
Students do not begin with AI; they earn access to it. Every writing task starts with:

• Planning and task input
• Teacher-led modelling and scaffolding
• UDL supports such as sentence starters and curated vocabulary banks

Only after this foundation is established do students engage with AI in a controlled, purposeful way.

AI as Feedback, Not a Crutch
Once students produce an initial draft, AI becomes part of an iterative feedback cycle. Using prompts aligned with the Cambridge IGCSE 0500 marking criteria—calibrated through sustained use of examiner-style frameworks and iterative evaluation of student work—AI helps students:

• Analyse their writing against Table A (Content & Structure) and Table B (Style & Accuracy)
• Identify patterns in errors
• Receive immediate, targeted feedback on grammar, clarity, and vocabulary

This transforms feedback from something delayed and generic into something immediate, specific, and actionable.

UDL in Action
The workflow embodies UDL principles by offering multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement. As students grow, supports are gradually faded — sentence starters disappear, vocabulary expectations rise, and independence increases. The result is genuine skill development rather than dependency.

UbD Alignment: Designing for Transfer
From a UbD perspective, the goal is not simply a strong piece of writing, but the development of transferable analytical and critical thinking skills. AI reinforces clear success criteria and helps students understand not only what to improve, but why it matters.

Maintaining Authenticity and Integrity
Authenticity is protected through process-based writing, in-class checkpoints, and using AI strictly for analysis and refinement — never for content generation. Students produce their own work and use AI to make it stronger.

The Result
When used intentionally, AI sharpens rather than dilutes learning. Students show improved writing precision, stronger analytical thinking, greater engagement with revision, and more consistent academic outcomes — all while developing an authentic voice.

Conclusion
AI in education is neither inherently good nor bad. Its value depends entirely on how it is used. By embedding it within a clear pedagogical framework grounded in UDL and UbD, it becomes a powerful tool for increasing access, enhancing feedback, supporting differentiation, and driving deeper learning.

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